Ancient Rome - the art of sculpture. Sculptures of Ancient Rome: A Complete Guide Sculptures of Ancient Romans

According to ancient legends, Rome was formed in the middle of the 8th century BC. e. The culture, which was considered one of the most influential during the period of antiquity, had a huge impact on European civilization. This is despite the fact that the painting and sculpture of Ancient Rome are based on Greek motives, and theater and music are inextricably linked with the Etruscan ancient traditions.

Characteristics of ancient Roman art

Unlike other ancient countries, the Romans did not assign educational or moral tasks to art. On the contrary, the visual arts of Ancient Rome were more utilitarian in nature, since they were considered just a way to rationally organize living space. That is why architecture occupied an important place in the life of the population of this ancient country. The civilization of Ancient Rome still reminds of itself with monumental structures: temples, arenas and palaces.

In addition to the magnificent monuments of architecture, the culture of Rome in the era of antiquity can be judged by the numerous sculptures, which were portraits of those who lived at that time. Life in ancient Rome was always subject to strict rules, and in some periods sculptural portraits were created solely in order to immortalize the faces of rulers or famous people. Only after some time did Roman sculptors begin to endow their statues with characters or special features. Roman creators preferred to depict important historical events in the form of bas-reliefs.

It is worth noting that the peculiarities lie in the almost complete absence of such phenomena as theater - in our usual understanding, as well as our own mythology. Using images created by the Greeks for many magnificent Romans, they either distorted events to please their authorities, or did not attach much importance to them at all. This happened primarily because the visual arts of Ancient Rome developed under the influence of the dominant ideology, which were alien to abstract philosophical principles and artistic fiction.

Distinctive features of the art of Ancient Rome

Despite the proven existence of Rome as a separate civilization, historians for a long time could not separate ancient Greek art from Roman art. However, due to the fact that many works of the artistic and architectural heritage of Ancient Rome have been preserved to this day, it was possible to determine the main features inherent exclusively in ancient Roman works. So, what achievements and inventions of Ancient Rome in the field of fine arts characterize it as an independent phenomenon?

The architectural achievement of the Romans was the combination of spatial perception and artistic forms in buildings. Roman architects preferred to erect separate buildings and ensembles in natural lowlands, and if there were none, they enclosed structures with small walls.
In contrast to the Greek plastic images, Roman art put allegory, symbolism and the illusory nature of space. These inventions of Ancient Rome in relation to sculptural and artistic images made it possible to give character not only to sculptural portraits, but also to mosaic or fresco images.
Ancient Roman artists developed easel painting, which originated in Greece, which was practically not widespread in their historical homeland.

Despite the abundance of subtle and barely noticeable features of the layman, there is a factor that allows even a non-specialist to determine the belonging of a sculptural or architectural object to ancient Roman culture. This is its size. The civilization of Ancient Rome is known throughout the world for its grandiose buildings and sculptures. Their size is several times higher than analogs from Ancient Greece and other countries.

Periodization

The fine arts of Ancient Rome developed in several stages, which corresponded to the periods of the historical formation of the state itself. If historians divide the evolution of ancient Greek art into formation (archaic), flourishing (classics) and crisis period (Hellenism), the development of ancient Roman art takes on new features during the change of the imperial dynasty. This phenomenon is due to the fact that socio-economic and ideological factors played a fundamental role in changing stylistic and artistic forms.

The stages of the evolution of art in Rome are considered to be the period of the Roman kingdom (7-5 \u200b\u200bcenturies BC), republican (5-1 centuries BC) and the period of the Roman Empire (1-2 centuries AD). The real flourishing of all types of arts, including sculpture, theater, music and artistic and applied creativity, came at the end of the 1st century BC. e. and lasted until

Art of the royal period

The formation of ancient Roman art dates back to the 8th century BC. e., when Etruscan methods of planning buildings, masonry and the use of building materials became the main motives in architecture. This can be judged by the temple of Jupiter Capitoline. Painting and making decorative objects are also closely related to Etruscan roots. Only by the middle of the 7th century BC. e., when the Romans colonized Greece, they got acquainted with the artistic techniques of the Greeks. It is worth noting that ancient Roman artists even then sought to create their works as close as possible to the originals. Historians associate this with the tradition of making posthumous wax masks that exactly repeated the facial features of a person. The gods of ancient Rome, whose statues were made during the period of the Roman kingdom, were depicted in the same way as ordinary people.

Republican art

The republican period of the Roman state was marked by the final formation of architecture: without exception, all complexes (residential and temple) acquired an axial structure and symmetry. The facade of the building was decorated more magnificently, and an ascent led to the entrance (usually a stone staircase). In the cities, residential development from multi-storey buildings is spreading, while the wealthy segments of the population build country terrace houses decorated with frescoes and sculptural compositions. During this period, such types of buildings as the theater of Ancient Rome (amphitheater), aqueducts, and bridges were finally formed.

The visual arts were based on portrait sculpture: official and private. The first served the purpose of perpetuating statesmen, while the second existed thanks to orders for the manufacture of statues and busts for houses and tombs. Public buildings were decorated with bas-reliefs depicting historical scenes or pictures of the daily life of the state. In the temples, however, most often it was possible to see paintings (including mosaics and frescoes), which depicted the gods of Ancient Rome.

The Roman Empire: The Final Period of the Development of Art

The period is considered the time of the true heyday of ancient Roman art. The architecture is dominated by arch, vault and domes. Stone walls are generally faced with brick or marble. Large spaces in the premises are occupied by decorative paintings and sculptures. The fine arts of Ancient Rome during this period undergoes significant changes. When making sculptural portraits, less attention is paid to individual features, which sometimes look somewhat sketchy. At the same time, the sculptors tried to depict the swiftness of movements, the emotional state of the person being portrayed (the position of the body, arms and legs, hairstyle, etc.). Bas-relief images take the form of panoramas with a gradually developing plot.

In contrast to the previous period, it becomes more complex due to the introduction of landscape and architectural backgrounds. The paints used for the frescoes are brighter, and the color combinations are more contrasting. In addition to colored mosaics, black and white is widely used.

The most famous sculptural portraits

Roman portraits of statesmen, gods and heroes are represented by busts or full-length statues. The earliest Roman portrait is considered to be a bronze bust of Junius Brutus. One can feel the great influence of Greek art in it, however, the facial features typical of the Romans and a slight asymmetry make it possible to once again make sure that the ancient Roman sculptors even then, in the 3rd century BC. e., gave their works maximum realism. Despite the lack of modern metal processing technologies, the small details of the bust are perfectly executed. First of all, this is noticeable in the fine engraving of the beard and hair.

The most realistic is still considered to be a sculptural portrait of Vespasian, the Roman emperor. The master not only conveyed his image in the smallest detail, but also endowed the bust with characteristic features. The eyes are particularly eye-catching: deep-set and small, they radiate the natural cunning and wit of the emperor. But the most remarkable is the fact that the sculptor also depicted the smallest details (tense veins and veins in the neck, wrinkles crossing the forehead), which speak of the strength and inflexibility of the state leader. No less expressive was the bust of the usurer Lucius Cecilius Yukunda, whose greedy eyes and greasy hair are depicted with amazing accuracy.

Great monuments of architecture of the ancient Roman era

To date, none of the buildings built in the era of Ancient Rome has been completely preserved. The most famous and famous of them is the Colosseum, an arena where gladiator fights and performances by statesmen of different levels, including emperors, took place. The Temple of Saturn has no less striking history, which was repeatedly destroyed and rebuilt. Unlike the Colosseum, it cannot be seen, since only a few columns remain of the magnificent structure. But they managed to save the famous Pantheon, or the temple of all the gods, which is a fairly large building topped with a dome.

Poets of Ancient Rome and their works

Despite the mythology borrowed from the Greeks, the ancient Romans also had their own talents in the field of adding poems, songs and fables. The most famous poets of Rome are Virgil and Horace. The first became famous for having written the poem "Aeneid", which was very reminiscent of Homer's "Iliad". Despite the less expressive poetic and artistic component, this poem is still considered the standard of the original Latin language. Horace, on the other hand, had an excellent command of the artistic word, thanks to which he became a court poet, and lines from his poems and songs still appear in the works of many writers.

Theatrical art

The theater of Ancient Rome initially reminded little of what we consider to be so today. Almost all performances were held in the genre of competitions of poets and musicians. Only occasionally could ancient Roman art connoisseurs enjoy the performance of the actors, accompanied by a large choir. Often, the audience was shown circus numbers, theatrical pantomime and solo or group dances. A distinctive feature of the ancient Roman theatrical performance was the large number of the troupe. About this, the audience said that there are fewer of them than the actors.

It is worth noting that costumes and makeup were not paid much attention back then. Only sometimes, playing the role of an emperor or a significant person in the state, the actors dressed in more magnificent red clothes. The repertoire consisted mainly of the works of Roman poets: Horace, Virgil and Ovid. Often, unhurried narrations and chants in the theaters were replaced by bloody battles of gladiators, to which the audience went with no less pleasure.

Music and musical instruments

The music of Ancient Rome was formed independently of the ancient Greek one. When holding public events and performances, the most popular were musical instruments capable of producing a very loud sound: trumpets, horns, and the like. However, most often during the performance they preferred timpani, harps, citharas. It is worth noting that everyone was fond of music, including the Roman emperors. Among the musicians and singers were those who were immortalized in sculpture. The singers and kifareda Apelles, Terpnius, Diodorus, Anaxenor, Tigellius and Mesomedes enjoyed particular popularity and love of the Roman people at that time. The music of Ancient Rome is still alive, since not only the main motives, but also the musical instruments have been preserved.

The influence of ancient Roman art on modern times

Much has been said about the influence of Roman civilization on modernity and everywhere. Of course, the characteristics of Ancient Rome, or rather, that of its area that relates to art, has not yet been presented in full. Nevertheless, it can already be argued that the architecture, sculpture and visual arts of the ancient Roman era directly influenced the cultural component of almost all European states. This is especially noticeable in architecture, when the harmony and majesty of buildings is enclosed in a clear symmetrical form.

The main advantage of ancient Roman sculpture is the realism and reliability of the images. First of all, this is due to the fact that the Romans had a strong cult of ancestors, and from the earliest period of Roman history there was a custom to take off posthumous wax masks, which later were taken as the basis of sculptural portraits by the masters of sculpture.

The very concept of "ancient Roman art" has a very conventional meaning. All Roman sculptors were Greek in origin. In an aesthetic sense, all ancient Roman sculpture is a replica of the Greek one. The innovation was the combination of the Greek desire for harmony and Roman rigidity and the cult of strength.

The history of ancient Roman sculpture is divided into three parts - the art of the Etruscans, the plastic arts of the era of the republic and the imperial art.

Etruscan art

The Etruscan sculpture was designed to decorate burial urns. These urns themselves were created in the form of a human body. Realism of the image was considered necessary to maintain order in the world of spirits and people. The works of the ancient Etruscan masters, despite the primitiveness and schematic of the images, surprise with the individuality of each image, their character and energy.

Sculpture of the Roman Republic

For sculpture of the times of the Republic, emotional stinginess, detachment and coldness are characteristic. The impression was created that the image was completely closed. This is due to the exact reproduction of the death mask when creating the sculpture. The situation was somewhat corrected by Greek aesthetics, the canons by which the proportions of the human body were calculated.

Numerous reliefs of triumphal columns and temples dating back to this period are striking in their graceful lines and realism. Especially worth mentioning is the bronze sculpture of the "Roman She-Wolf". The foundational legend of Rome, the material embodiment of Roman ideology - this is the significance of this statue in culture. The primitivization of the plot, the wrong proportions, the fantastic, do not in the least prevent one from admiring the dynamics of this work, its special poignancy and temperament.

But the main conquest in the sculpture of this era was the realistic sculptural portrait. Unlike Greece, where, creating a portrait, the master somehow subordinated all the individual features of the model to the laws of harmony and beauty, the Roman masters carefully copied all the subtleties of the models' appearance. On the other hand, this often led to a simplification of images, rough lines and a distance from realism.

Sculpture of the Roman Empire

The task of the art of any empire is to exalt the emperor and the state. Rome is no exception. The Romans of the era of the empire could not imagine their home without sculptures of ancestors, gods and the emperor himself. Therefore, many examples of imperial plastic art have survived to this day.

First of all, the triumphal columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius deserve attention. The columns are decorated with bas-reliefs telling about military campaigns, exploits and trophies. Such reliefs are not only works of art that amaze with the accuracy of images, the multi-figured composition, the harmony of lines and the subtlety of work, they are also an invaluable historical source that allows you to restore the everyday and military details of the era of the empire.

The statues of the emperors in the forums of Rome are executed in a harsh, rough manner. There is no longer a trace of the Greek harmony and beauty that was characteristic of early Roman art. The masters, first of all, had to portray strong and tough rulers. There was also a departure from realism. The Roman emperors were portrayed as athletic and tall, despite the fact that few of them were distinguished by a harmonious physique.

Almost always during the Roman Empire, sculptures of gods were depicted with the faces of the ruling emperors, so historians know for sure what the emperors of the largest ancient state looked like.

Despite the fact that Roman art, without any doubt, entered the world's treasury of many masterpieces, in its essence it is only a continuation of the ancient Greek. The Romans developed ancient art, made it more magnificent, majestic, brighter. On the other hand, it was the Romans who lost the sense of proportion, depth and ideological content of early antique art.

The most famous sculptures in Rome

The greatest cultural and archaeological heritage of the Eternal City, woven from different historical eras, makes Rome unique. The capital of Italy has collected an incredible amount of works of art - real masterpieces, known all over the world, behind which are the names of great talents. In this article, we want to tell you about the most famous sculptures in Rome, which are definitely worth seeing.

For many centuries Rome has been the center of world art. Since ancient times, masterpieces of the creations of human hands have been brought to the capital of the Empire. During the Renaissance, pontiffs, cardinals and members of the nobility built palaces and churches, decorating them with beautiful frescoes, paintings and sculptures. Many newly erected buildings of this period gave new life to the architectural and decorative elements of antiquity - ancient columns, capitals, marble friezes and sculptures were taken from buildings of the times of the Empire, restored and installed in a new place. In addition, the Renaissance gave Rome an endless number of new ingenious creations, including the works of Michelangelo, Canova, Bernini and many other talented sculptors.

Sleeping Hermaphrodite

Capitoline wolf

The most significant for the Romans is the "Capitoline She-Wolf", which is now kept in the Capitoline Museums. According to the legend about the founding of Rome, the twins Romulus and Remus were suckled by a she-wolf at the Capitol Hill.

It is generally accepted that the bronze statue was made by the Etruscans in the 5th century BC, but modern researchers tend to assume that the "Wolf" was made much later - during the Middle Ages. The twins were added in the second half of the 15th century. Their authorship has not been established for certain. Most likely they were created by Antonio del Pollaiolo.

Laocoon and sons

One of the most famous sculptures in Rome is in the Pio Clementine Museum, part of the Vatican Museums complex. This work is a marble Roman copy made between the 1st century BC. and the 1st century A.D. after a Greek bronze original. A sculptural group depicting a scene of the struggle of Laocoon and his sons with snakes, presumably decorated the private villa of Emperor Titus.

The statue was discovered at the beginning of the 16th century in the vineyards on the Oppio hill, owned by a certain Felice de Fredis. In the Basilica of Santa Maria in Aracoeli, on the tombstone of Felice, you can see an inscription telling about this fact. Michelangelo Buonarroti and Giuliano da Sangallo were invited to the excavations, who were to evaluate the find.

This sculptural group during the Renaissance made a strong resonance in the circles of creative persons and influenced the development of the art of the Renaissance in Italy. The incredible dynamism and plasticity of the forms of the antique work inspired many masters of that time, such as Michelangelo, Titian, El Greco, Andrea del Sarto, and others.

Sculptures by Michelangelo

The great master of all times, whose name almost everyone knows - Michelangelo Buonarroti - sculptor, architect, artist and poet. Despite the fact that most of the works of this talented man are in Florence and Bologna, in Rome you can also get acquainted with some of his works. In the Vatican, in St. Peter's Basilica, there is a world masterpiece of all eras - the sculptural group Pieta Michelangelo, depicting the Virgin Mary mourning Jesus, who was removed from the cross after crucifixion. At the time of this work, the master was only 24 years old. In addition, the Pieta is the only work of the master signed with his own hand.

Pieta

Another work of Buonarroti can be admired in the Cathedral of San Pietro in Vincoli. There is a monumental tombstone for Pope Julius II, the creation of which took four decades. Despite the fact that the original project of the funeral monument was never fully implemented, the main figure decorating the monument and personifying Moses makes a strong impression.

Moses

The sculpture looks so realistic that it fully conveys the character and mood of the biblical character.

Sculptures by Lorenzo Bernini

Another genius whose name is closely associated with Rome is Jean Lorenzo Bernini. Thanks to his activities, the Eternal City acquired a new look. According to Bernini's designs, palaces and churches were erected, squares and fountains were equipped. Bernini, together with his students, designed the Pont de Sant'Angelo, created an incredible number of sculptures, many of which still adorn the streets of Rome.

Bernini. Fountain of the Four Rivers in Piazza Navona. Fragment

Sensual marble figures with graceful soft shapes and special sophistication amaze with their virtuoso performance: cold stone looks warm and soft, and the characters of sculptural compositions - alive.

Among the most famous works by Bernini, which are definitely worth seeing with your own eyes, the first place on our list is occupied by "The Rape of Proserpine" and "Apollo and Daphne", which make up the collection of the Borghese Gallery. Find out more about these works, as well as about other masterpieces of the Borghese Gallery.

Apollo and Daphne

The “Ecstasy of Blessed Ludovica Albertoni” deserves special attention - another masterpiece of the Renaissance. This sculptural statue, created as a funeral monument at the request of Cardinal Paluzzi, depicts a scene of the religious ecstasy of Ludovica Albertoni, who lived at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries. The sculpture adorns the Altieri Chapel located in the Basilica of San Francesco a Ripa in the Trastevere area.

Ecstasy of Blessed Ludovica Albertoni

Another similar work is kept in the Basilica of Santa Maria della Vittoria. The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa was sculpted by Lorenzo Bernini at the request of the Venetian cardinal at the end of the 17th century. The main character of the work is Saint Teresa, immersed in a state of spiritual illumination. Nearby, against the background of sparkling golden rays, is the figure of an angel directing an arrow into the languid body of the saint. The plot for the sculptural group was the story described by the Spanish nun Teresa of how in a dream she saw an angel piercing her womb with an arrow of divine light, which caused her to experience the torment of lust.

Ecstasy of Saint Teresa

Paolina Borghese by sculptor Antonio Canova

Another world-class masterpiece is the gentle and romantic Paolina Borghese, executed in the first decade of the 19th century in the neoclassical style by the renowned sculptor Antonio Canova. The sculpture depicting Napoleon's sister Paolina Bonaparte was commissioned on the occasion of her marriage to Camillo Borghese, a Roman prince.

The sculptures described in this article are only a negligible part of the many world masterpieces in Rome, the genius of which is beyond doubt and which you should definitely see at least once in your life.

Roman sculpture, unlike Greek, did not create samples of an ideally beautiful person and was associated with the funeral cult of ancestors - the defenders of the hearth. The Romans strove to accurately reproduce the portrait resemblance to the deceased, hence such features of Roman sculpture as concreteness, sobriety, realism in details, sometimes seeming excessive. One of the roots of the realism of the Roman portrait was his technique: according to many scholars, the Roman portrait developed from death masks, which were customarily removed from the dead and kept at the home altar along with the figures of lar and penates. In addition to wax masks, bronze, marble and terracotta busts of their ancestors were kept in the lararium. Impression masks were made directly from the faces of the deceased and then processed in order to make them more natural. This led to an excellent knowledge of the Roman masters of the features of the musculature of the human face and its facial expressions.

In the days of the Republic, it became customary to erect statues (already in full growth) in public places of political officials or military commanders. Such an honor was rendered by the decision of the Senate, usually to commemorate victories, triumphs, political achievements. Such portraits were usually accompanied by a dedicatory inscription telling about the merits.

With the advent of the Empire, the portrait of the emperor and his family became one of the most powerful means of propaganda.

The Roman sculptural portrait as an independent and original artistic phenomenon can be clearly traced from the beginning of the 1st century BC. - the period of the Roman Republic. A characteristic feature of the portraits of this period is extreme naturalism and believability in the transfer of facial features that distinguishes a particular person from any other person. These trends date back to Etruscan art.

The reign of Emperor Octavian Augustus was the golden age of Roman culture. An important aspect that influenced the formation of Roman art of this period was the Greek art of the classical period, whose strict forms came in handy when creating a majestic empire.

The portrait of a woman takes on a more independent meaning than before.

Under the successors of Emperor Augustus - the rulers from the Julian-Claudian dynasty - the image of the deified emperor becomes traditional.

During the time of Emperor Flavius, there was a tendency towards idealization - giving ideal features. Idealization proceeded in two ways: the emperor was portrayed as a god or a hero; or else virtues were given to his image, his wisdom and piety were emphasized. The size of such images often exceeded nature, the portraits themselves had a monumental image, the individual features of the face were smoothed out for this, which made the features more correct and generalized.

In the days of Trajan, in search of support, society turns to the era of the "Valiant Republic", "the simple customs of the ancestors", including its aesthetic ideals. There is a reaction against the "corrupting" Greek influence. These moods also corresponded to the harsh character of the emperor himself.

During the reign of Emperor Marcus Aurelius, a philosopher on the throne, an equestrian statue was created, which became a model for all subsequent equestrian monuments in Europe.

Ancient Rome painting

Roman art, developing within the framework of the ancient slave-owning era, at the same time was very different from it. The formation and formation of the culture of the Romans took place in different historical conditions. The knowledge of the world by the Romans took on new forms. The artistic understanding of life by the Romans bore the stamp of an analytical attitude. Their art is perceived as more prosaic than Greek. A striking feature of the art of Rome is its closest connection with life. Many historical events were reflected in art monuments. The change in the social order - the change of the republic by the empire, the change of the dynasties of the rulers of Rome - directly influenced changes in the pictorial, sculptural and architectural forms. That is why it is sometimes not difficult to determine the time of creation of this or that work by stylistic features.

With the shift of emphasis to the interior and the appearance of ceremonial rooms in Roman houses and villas, a system of highly artistic murals developed on the basis of the Greek tradition. Pompeian paintings introduce the main features of an antique fresco. The Romans also used painting to decorate facades, using them as signs for trade premises or craft workshops. By nature, Pompeian paintings are usually divided into 4 groups, conventionally called styles. The first style, inlaid, common in the 2nd century. BC. Imitates wall cladding with squares of colored marble or jasper. The murals of the first type are constructive, emphasize the architectural basis of the wall, they correspond to the severe laconicism of forms inherent in republican architecture. Since the 80s 1c. BC. The second style was applied - architecturally perspective. The walls remained smooth and were dissected picturesquely - illusoryly filled with columns, pilasters, cornices, and porticoes. The interior acquired a splendor due to the fact that between the columns there was often a large multi-figured composition that realistically reproduced plots on mythological themes from the works of famous Greek artists. The attraction to nature, inherent in the Romans, prompted them to illusoryly reproduce landscapes on scenes using linear and aerial perspectives, and thereby, as it were, expand the interior space of the room. The third style, orienting, is characteristic of the era of the empire. In contrast to the splendor of the second style, the third style is distinguished by severity, grace and a sense of proportion. Balanced compositions, linear ornament, against a bright background, emphasize the plane of the wall. Sometimes the central field of the wall is highlighted, where paintings of some famous ancient master are reproduced. The fourth decorative style spreads in the middle of the 1st century. AD With splendor and decorativeness, spatial - architectural solution, it continues the tradition of the second style. At the same time, the richness of ornamental motifs resembles the painting of the third style. Fantastic and dynamic, forward-looking buildings destroy the isolation and flatness of the walls, create the impression of theatrical scenery reproducing the intricate facades of palaces, gardens that are visible through their windows, or art galleries - copies of famous originals, executed in a free painting manner. The fourth style gives an idea of \u200b\u200bantique theatrical scenery. Pompeian paintings played an important role in the further development of the decorative art of Western Europe.

Literature of Ancient Rome

The first steps of Roman fiction are associated with the spread of Greek education in Rome. The early Roman writers imitated classical Greek literature, although they used Roman subjects and some Roman forms. There is no reason to deny the existence of oral Roman poetry, which arose in a distant era. The earliest forms of poetry are undoubtedly associated with a cult.

This is how a religious hymn arose, a sacred song, the example of which is the song of the Saliev that has come down to us. It is composed by Saturnic verses. This is the oldest monument of the Italic free poetic scale, analogies to which we find in the oral poetry of other peoples.

In patrician families, songs and legends were composed, glorifying famous ancestors. One of the types of creativity were elogies composed in honor of the deceased representatives of noble families. The earliest example of elogy is the epitaph dedicated to L. Cornelius Scipio the Bearded, which also gives an example of a Saturnian size. Other types of Roman oral creativity include funeral songs sung by special mourners, all kinds of conspiracies and incantations, also composed in verse. Thus, long before the appearance of Roman fiction in the true sense of the word, the Romans created a poetic meter, a Saturnic verse, which was used by the first poets.

The rudiments of Roman folk drama are to be found in various rural festivals, but its development is associated with the influence of neighboring peoples. Atellans were the main type of dramatic performances.

Oki appeared in Etruria and were associated with cult activities; but this form was developed by the Oscans, and the very name "Atellan" comes from the Campanian city of Atella. The Atellans were special plays, the content of which was taken from rural life and the life of small towns.

In the Atellans, the main roles were played by the same types in the form of characteristic masks (glutton, boastful gaping, stupid old man, hunchbacked sly, etc.). Initially, the Atellans were presented off the cuff. Subsequently, in the 1st century. BC, this improvisational form was used by Roman playwrights as a special genre of comedy.

The beginning of Roman prose dates back to ancient times. In the early era, written laws, contracts, and liturgical books appeared. The conditions of public life contributed to the development of eloquence. Some of the speeches delivered were recorded.

Cicero, for example, was aware of the speech of Appius Claudius Cekus, delivered in the Senate regarding the proposal of Pyrrhus to conclude peace with him. We also find indications that funeral orations appeared in Rome already in an early era.

Roman literature emerges as imitative literature. The first Roman poet was Livy Andronicus, who translated the Odyssey into Latin.

Livy was originally a Greek from Tarentum. In 272 he was brought to Rome as a prisoner, then he was released and was engaged in teaching the children of his patron and other aristocrats. The translation of the Odyssey was performed in Saturnian verses. His language was not distinguished by elegance, and even word formations that were alien to the Latin language were encountered in it. This was the first poetic work written in Latin. In Roman schools for many years they studied from the translation of the Odyssey, made by Andronicus.

Livy Andronicus wrote several comedies and tragedies, which were translations or alterations of Greek works.

During the life of Livy, the poetic activity of Gnaeus Nevius (circa 274-204), a native of Campanian, who owns an epic work about the first Punic War with a summary of previous Roman history, began.

In addition, Nevi wrote several tragedies, including those based on Roman legends.

Since in the tragedies of Nevi, the Romans performed, dressed in a formal suit - a toga with a purple border. Nevi also wrote comedies in which he did not hide his democratic convictions. In one comedy, he ironically spoke of the then omnipotent Scipio the Elder; to Metellus, he said: "By the fate of the evil Metella in Rome, consuls" For his poetry, Nevi was imprisoned and released from there only thanks to the intercession of the tribunes of the people. However, he had to retire from Rome.

Religion of Ancient Rome

The early Roman religion was animistic, i.e. recognized the existence of all kinds of spirits, elements of totemism were also inherent in her, which manifested themselves, in particular, in the veneration of the Capitoline she-wolf, who nurtured Romulus and Remus. Gradually, under the influence of the Etruscans, who represented, like the Greeks, gods in human form, the Romans switched to anthropomorphism. The first temple in Rome - the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitoline Hill - was built by Etruscan craftsmen. Roman mythology in its initial development was reduced to animism, i.e. belief in the animation of nature. The ancient Italians worshiped the souls of the dead, and the main motive for worship was fear of their supernatural power. For the Romans, as well as for the Semites, the gods appeared to be terrible forces that had to be reckoned with, appeasing them by strict adherence to all rituals. Every minute of his life, the Roman was afraid of the dislike of the gods and, in order to enlist their favor, did not undertake or perform a single deed without prayer and the established formalities. In contrast to the artistically gifted and agile Hellenes, the Romans did not have folk epic poetry; their religious ideas were expressed in a few, monotonous and scanty in content myths. In the gods, the Romans saw only the will (numen), which interfered with human life.

The Roman gods did not have either their Olympus or genealogy, and were depicted in the form of symbols: Mana - under the guise of snakes, Jupiter - under the guise of a stone, Mars - under the guise of a spear, Vesta - under the guise of fire. The original system of Roman mythology - judging by the data modified under various influences that ancient literature tells us - boiled down to a listing of symbolic, impersonal, deified concepts, under whose auspices a person's life consisted from his conception to death; no less abstract and impersonal were the deities of souls, whose cult constituted the most ancient basis of family religion. At the second stage of mythological representations were the deities of nature, mainly rivers, springs and earth, as the producer of all living things. Next are the deities of heavenly space, the deities of death and the underworld, deities - the personification of the spiritual and moral sides of man, as well as various relations of social life, and, finally, foreign gods and heroes.

Along with the gods, the Romans continued to venerate impersonal forces. Matzos - the souls of the dead, geniuses - spirits - patrons of men, lares - keepers of the hearth and family, penates - patrons of the house and the entire city were considered to be located to people. Evil spirits were considered larvas - the souls of the unburied dead, lemurs - the ghosts of the dead, persecuting people, etc. Already in the tsarist era, one can notice some formalism in the attitude of the Romans to religion. All cult functions were distributed among various priests, united in a college. The high priests were pontiffs who supervised other priests, who were in charge of rituals, funeral cults, etc. One of their important duties was to draw up calendars, which marked the days favorable for holding meetings, concluding agreements, starting hostilities, etc. There were special colleges of priests - soothsayers: augurs divined by the flight of birds, haruspics - by the insides of sacrificial animals. Flamnin priests served the cults of certain gods, fetials priests monitored the exact observance of the principles of international law. As in Greece, the priests in Rome are not a special caste, but elected officials.

Conclusion

The culture and art of Ancient Rome left a huge legacy to mankind, the significance of which is difficult to overestimate. The great organizer and creator of modern norms of civilized life, Ancient Rome decisively transformed the cultural image of a huge part of the world. Only for this he is worthy of the enduring glory and memory of posterity. In addition, the art of the Roman period left many remarkable monuments in a wide variety of fields, ranging from works of architecture to glass vessels. Each ancient Roman monument embodies a tradition compressed by time and brought to its logical conclusion. It carries information about faith and rituals, the meaning of life and creative skills of the people to whom it belonged, the place that this people occupied in the grand empire. The Roman state is very difficult. He was the only one who had the mission of parting with the millennial world of paganism and creating those principles that formed the basis of Christian art in the modern era.

Culture of Ancient Greece

Plan

Introduction Sculpture in Ancient Greece (Polycletus, Myron, Phidias)

Literature in Ancient Greece (Plato, Aristotle)

Theater in Ancient Greece (Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes)

Conclusion

Introduction

Ancient Greece and its culture hold a special place in world history. Thinkers of different eras and directions converge in a high assessment of the ancient (i.e. Greco-Roman) civilization. The French historian of the last century Ernest Renan called the civilization of ancient Greece "a Greek miracle". The highest marks for Greek civilization do not seem to be exaggerated. But what gave rise to the idea of \u200b\u200ba "miracle"? Greek civilization is not the only one, nor is it the most ancient. When it appeared, some civilizations of the ancient East measured their history for thousands of years. This applies, for example, to Egypt and Babylon. The thought of the miracle of Greek civilization is most likely due to its unusually rapid flowering. The society and culture of Ancient Egypt already at the beginning of the third millennium BC was at the stage of development that allows us to speak of the transition from barbarism to civilization. The creation of Greek civilization belongs to the era of "cultural revolution" - VII - V centuries. BC E. Over the course of three centuries, a new form of state emerged in Greece - the first in the history of democracy. In science, philosophy, literature and the visual arts, Greece has surpassed the achievements of ancient Eastern civilizations, which have been developing for more than three thousand years. Wasn't it a miracle? Of course, no one had in mind the supernatural origin of Greek civilization, but it turned out to be quite difficult to indicate the historical reasons for the appearance of the "Greek miracle". The emergence and flourishing of Greek civilization, which actually took place over the course of several generations, was already a mystery for the Greeks themselves. Already in the V century. BC e. the first attempts to explain this phenomenon appeared. Egypt was declared the progenitor of many achievements of Greek culture. One of the first was the "father of history" Herodotus, who highly appreciated the culture of Ancient Egypt. The famous Rhetorician and Socrates argued that Pythagoras adopted his philosophy in Egypt, and Aristotle calls this country the birthplace of theoretical mathematics. The ancestor of Greek philosophy, Thales was a Phoenician by birth. Arriving in Egypt, he studied with the priests, borrowed from them the idea of \u200b\u200bwater as the origin of all that exists, as well as knowledge of geometry and astronomy. We find the same information from ancient authors about Homer, Lycurgus, Solon, Democritus, Heroklitus and other prominent representatives of Greek culture. What made the Greeks look for the eastern roots of their own culture? Modern science indicates several reasons. Firstly, the Greeks, getting acquainted with the Egyptian culture and the culture of other countries of the Ancient East, really borrowed a lot, and in other cases they discovered features of similarity between their culture and the cultures of the East. Knowing about the great antiquity of Eastern civilizations, the Greeks were inclined to explain the origin of this or that phenomenon of Greek culture by borrowing from the Hellenes in the East, which seemed logical. Secondly, this was facilitated by the conservatism of life principles, characteristic of all ancient societies. Greece was no exception in this regard. The ancient Greeks had a deep respect for antiquity. That is why the Greeks were willing to generously donate their own achievements to other nations. Modern science also provides other explanations for the origin of ancient Greek civilization. Renan saw the reason for the "Greek miracle" in the properties allegedly inherent in the Aryan languages: abstractness and metaphysics. They singled out the special talent of the Greeks in comparison with other peoples of antiquity. Various hypotheses are considered in the book of the historian A. I Zaitsev "The Cultural Revolution in Ancient Greece in the 8th - 5th centuries BC." They provide specific information that refutes racist hypotheses. Many historians come to the conclusion that the reasons for the greatness of Greek civilization should be sought not in the racial prehistory of Greece, but in the concrete historical reality of the first millennium BC. e. The famous Swiss scientist André Bonnard, in his book "Greek Civilization", argues that Greek civilization and ancient culture were based on ancient slavery. The Greek people went through the same stages of development as other peoples. Bonnard argues that there is no Greek miracle. In the center of his book are the people who created and created Greek civilization. "The starting point and object of the entire Greek civilization is man. She proceeds from his needs, she means his benefits and his progress. To achieve them, she plows both the world and man, one through the other. Man and the world, in view Greek civilizations are a reflection of each other - they are mirrors set against each other and mutually reading one in the other. "

One of the most ancient civilizations in the world - the Holy Roman Empire - gave humanity the greatest culture, which included not only the richest literary heritage, but also the stone chronicle. For a long time there is no people who inhabited this state, but thanks to the preserved architectural monuments, it is possible to recreate the way of life of the pagan Romans. April 21, the day the city was founded on seven hills, I propose to look at 10 sights of Ancient Rome.

Roman forum

The area, located in the valley between the Palatine and Velia on the south side, the Capitol on the west, Esquiline and the slopes of the Quirinal and Viminal, was a wetland in the pre-Roman period. Until the middle of the VIII century BC. e. this area was used for burials, and settlements were located on the nearby hills. The place was drained during the reign of King Tarquikius the Ancient, who stopped it at the center of the political, religious and cultural life of the townspeople. It was here that the famous truce between the Romans and the Sabines took place, elections to the Senate were held, judges sat and divine services were held.

From west to east, through the entire Roman Forum, runs the sacred road of the empire - Via Appia, or the Appian Way, along which there are many monuments from both ancient and medieval times. The Roman Forum houses the Temple of Saturn, the Temple of Vespasian and the Temple of Vesta.

The temple in honor of the god Saturn was erected around 489 BC, symbolizing the victory over the Etruscan kings of the Tarquinean clan. Several times he died during fires, but was revived. The inscription on the frieze confirms that "The Senate and the people of Rome have been rebuilt, destroyed by fire." It was a majestic building, which was decorated with a statue of Saturn, it included the premises of the state treasury, an aerarium, where documents on state revenues and debts were kept. However, only a few columns of the Ionic order have survived to this day.

The construction of the Temple of Vespasian began by decision of the Senate in 79 AD. e. after the death of the emperor. This holy building was dedicated to Flavias: Vespasian and his son Titus. It was 33 m long and 22 m wide. Three 15-meter columns of the Corinthian order have survived to this day.

The Temple of Vesta is dedicated to the goddess of the hearth and in ancient times was connected with the House of the Vestals. The Sacred Fire was constantly maintained in the interior. Initially, it was guarded by the king's daughters, then they were replaced by the Vestal priestesses, who also conducted services in honor of Vesta. In this temple there was a cache with the symbols of the empire. The building was round in shape, the territory of which was bordered by 20 Corinthian columns. Despite the fact that the roof had an outlet for smoke, fires often broke out in the temple. It was rescued several times, reconstructed, but in 394 the emperor Theodosius ordered to close it. Gradually, the building was dilapidated and fell into decay.

Trajan's Column

Monument of ancient Roman architecture, erected in 113 AD. the architect Apollodorus of Damascus in honor of the victories of Emperor Trajan over the Dacians. A marble column, hollow inside, rises 38 m above the ground. In the "body" of the structure there is a spiral staircase with 185 steps leading to an observation deck on the capital.

The column's barrel spirals 23 times around a 190 m long ribbon with reliefs depicting episodes of the war between Rome and Dacia. Initially, the monument was crowned with an eagle, later - a statue of Trajan. And in the Middle Ages, the column began to be decorated with a statue of the Apostle Peter. At the base of the column there is a door leading to the hall where the golden urns with the ashes of Trajan and his wife Pompeii Plotina were placed. The relief tells about Trajan's two wars with the Dacians, and the period 101-102. AD separated from the battles of 105–106 by the winged figure of Victoria writing the name of the winner on a shield surrounded by trophies. It also depicts the movement of the Romans, the construction of fortifications, river crossings, battles, the details of weapons, armor of both troops are drawn in great detail. There are about 2,500 human figures on the 40-ton column. Trajan appears on it 59 times. In addition to the Victory, there are other allegorical figures in the relief: the Danube in the form of a majestic old man, Night - a woman with a veiled face, etc.

Pantheon

The Temple of All Gods was built in 126 AD. e. under the Emperor Hadrian on the site of the previous Pantheon, erected two centuries earlier by Mark Vipsanius Agrippa. The Latin inscription on the pediment reads: “M. AGRIPPA L F COS TERTIUM FECIT "-" Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, elected consul for the third time, raised this. " Located in Piazza della Rotonda. The Pantheon is distinguished by the classical clarity and integrity of the composition of the internal space, the grandeur of the artistic image. The building, devoid of external decorations of a cylindrical shape, is crowned with a dome covered with discreet carvings. The height from the floor to the opening in the vault exactly matches the diameter of the base of the dome, presenting an amazing proportion to the eye. The weight of the dome is distributed over eight sections that form a monolithic wall, between which are niches that give the massive building an airy feel. Thanks to the illusion of open space, it seems that the walls are not so thick, and the dome is much lighter than in reality. The circular opening in the vault of the temple allows light to illuminate the rich interior decoration. Everything has come down to this day almost unchanged.

Coliseum

One of the most significant buildings in Ancient Rome. The huge amphitheater took eight years to build. It was an oval building with 80 large arches along the perimeter of the arena, on which there were smaller ones. The arena is surrounded by a wall in 3 tiers, and the total number of large and small arches was 240. Each tier was decorated with columns made in different styles. The first is Doric, the second is Ionic, and the third is Corinthian. In addition, the first two tiers contained sculptures by the best Roman craftsmen.

The amphitheater building included galleries intended for spectators' recreation, and loud merchants sold various goods there. Outside, the Colosseum was decorated with marble, and beautiful statues were located around its perimeter. 64 entrances led into the room, which were located on different sides of the amphitheater.

Below were the privileged places for the noble nobles of Rome and the throne of the emperor. The floor of the arena, where not only gladiatorial battles took place, but also real sea battles, was made of wood.

Today, the Colosseum has lost two-thirds of its original mass, but even today it is a magnificent structure, being a symbol of Rome. No wonder the saying goes: "While the Colosseum is standing, Rome will also stand, disappear the Colosseum - Rome and the whole world will disappear along with it."

Arch of Titus

The single-span marble arch, located on the Via Sacra road, was built after the death of Emperor Titus to commemorate the capture of Jerusalem in 81 AD. Its height is 15.4 m, width - 13.5 m, span depth - 4.75 m, span width - 5.33 m. procession with trophies, among which the main shrine of the Jewish temple is the menorah.

Baths of Caracalla

The baths were built at the beginning of the 3rd century AD. under Marcus Aurelius, nicknamed Caracalla. The luxurious building was intended not only for the washing process, but also for a variety of leisure activities, including sports and intellectual. There were four entrances to the "bath building"; through two central ones they entered the covered halls. On both sides of it were rooms for meetings, recitation, etc. Among the many different rooms on the right and left intended for washing rooms, two large open symmetrical courtyards surrounded on three sides by a colonnade, the floor of which was decorated with the famous mosaic with the figures of athletes, should be noted. The emperors not only covered the walls with marble, covered the floors with mosaics and erected magnificent columns: they systematically collected works of art here. In the baths of Caracalla once stood the Farnese bull, statues of Flora and Hercules, the torso of Apollo Belvedere.

The visitor found here a club, a stadium, a recreation garden, and a house of culture. Everyone could choose for himself what he liked: some, having washed, sat down to chat with friends, went to watch the wrestling and gymnastic exercises, they could stretch themselves; others wandered through the park, admired the statues, and sat in the library. People left with a supply of new strength, rested and refreshed not only physically, but also morally. Despite such a gift of fate, the terms were destined to collapse.

Temples of Portune and Hercules

These temples are located on the left bank of the Tiber on another ancient forum of the city - Bych. In early republican times, ships docked here and a brisk livestock trade was conducted, hence the name.

The Temple of Portuna was built in honor of the god of ports. The building has a rectangular shape, decorated with columns of the Ionic order. The temple is well preserved since around 872 A.D. was converted into the Christian church of Santa Maria in Gradelis, in the 5th century it was consecrated into the church of Santa Maria Aegitsiana.

The Temple of Hercules has a monopter design - a round building without internal partitions. The construction dates back to the 2nd century BC. The temple has a diameter of 14.8 m and is decorated with twelve Corinthian columns 10.6 m high. The structure rests on a tuff foundation. Previously, the temple had an architrave and a roof, which have not survived to our times. In 1132 A.D. the temple became a place of Christian worship. The church was originally called Santo Stefano al Carose. In the 17th century, the newly consecrated temple began to be called Santa Maria del Sol.

Field of Mars

"Field of Mars" was the name of the part of Rome, located on the left bank of the Tiber, originally intended for military and gymnastic exercises. In the center of the field was an altar in honor of the god of war. This part of the field remained vacant afterwards, while the rest of the field was built up.

Hadrian's mausoleum

The architectural monument was conceived as the tomb of the emperor and his family. The mausoleum was a square base (side length - 84 m), in which a cylinder (diameter - 64 m, height about 20 m) was installed, topped with a mound, the top of which was adorned with a sculptural composition: the emperor in the form of the sun god controlling a quadriga. Subsequently, this gigantic structure was used for military and strategic purposes. Centuries have changed its original appearance. The building acquired the Angel's courtyard, medieval halls, including the Hall of Justice, the Pope's apartments, a prison, a library, a Treasure Hall and the Secret Archives. From the terrace of the castle, over which the figure of an Angel rises, a magnificent view of the city opens.

Catacombs

The Catacombs of Rome are a network of ancient structures used as burial places, mostly during the early Christian period. In total, Rome has more than 60 different catacombs (150-170 km long, about 750,000 burials), most of which are located underground along the Appian Way. Labyrinths of underground passages, according to one version, arose on the site of ancient quarries, according to the other, they were formed in private land plots. In the Middle Ages, the custom of burying in the catacombs disappeared, and they remained as evidence of the culture of Ancient Rome.

Roman sculpture is much more varied than painting. As well as the visual arts, it was strongly influenced by Greek and Etruscan sculpture. A large number of Greek sculptors and local copyists from Hellenic sculptures lived in Ancient Rome.

Although there was no particularly significant Roman sculpture proper, the sculptors - the Romans in many ways improved the art of creating plastic figures. The masters were especially successful in creating a sculptural portrait, which developed as an independent type of creativity at the beginning of the 1st century BC.

Roman sculptural portrait

In contrast to the ancient Greek sculptors, Roman sculptors very carefully, in detail and vigilantly studied the face of the person from whom the portrait was sculpted. Therefore, the Roman plastic portrait is unusually realistic. It reflected the individual characteristics of a particular person's appearance. And sculptors showed the ability to observe a person and generalize their observations in a certain artistic form.

Roman portraits can be used to trace the life of a person, the changes taking place in his appearance, the change in morals and ideals. It should be noted the extraordinary similarity of the Roman portrait with the original face of the person captured in it. If in any features of the original there was an irregularity, indistinctness, then the sculptor tried to necessarily embody it in portrait sculpture. Thus, optimal similarity was achieved. This technique was widely used when creating portraits of emperors and officials in order to preserve their original faces for history.

During the period of the Roman Republic, history is perceived as a sequential course of events. This manifests itself in "narrative bas-reliefs". On the bas-reliefs in the Altar of Peace, there is a solemn procession making a sacrifice. All figures are located parallel to each other and seem to go deeper, observing the symbolic hierarchy. In the absence of a clear rhythm, the intonation of the image is very strong.

In the future, portrait sculpture, for example, the statues from Prima Porta from the time of Augustus repeat the features of previous periods, but the reliefs of the Arch of Titus are already significantly different. The plastic space is picturesquely and perspectively organized, the reliefs create the impression of a window open to the inside. Sculpted silhouettes convey the depth of space.

In Rome, monumental sculpture is widely used for political purposes. Monuments, arches and columns to outstanding figures of the Roman state were erected throughout the city.